TANGARAJU SUPPIAH, a 46-year-old Singaporean, was executed on April 26, 2023 for trafficking 1 kg of cannabis, despite pleas for clemency from his family and various human rights organizations. In comparison, countries like Uruguay and Portugal have completely decriminalized major recreational drugs. Suppiah’s case highlights stark differences in local drug policies: while several countries move towards decriminalizing drugs, others persist with harsh drug laws. 

Drug policy explained

   As psychological, legal, and political research has developed, so has knowledge about drug policing. Most famously, former U.S. President Richard Nixon’s “war on drugs”—a coordinated international effort started in 1971 to prohibit and criminalize the production, supply, and consumption of recreational drugs—yielded much more suffering than it did positive results, both in the United States and abroad[1]. The war on drugs has pointedly failed to eliminate both the use of illicit drugs and the international market for drug trade while increasing drug-related crime and incarcerations[2]. This leads to an important yet complicated reality about drug policing: drug use is not simply correlated to drug policy, as countries with rigorous drug laws do not consistently have lower drug use levels than countries with liberal drug policies[3]. For example, Afghanistan dominates the worldwide opium market, supplying most of Europe[4]. Although all cultivation and export of opium poppy were banned in April 2022, inadequate enforcement of the new ban resulted in poppy becoming one of Afghanistan’s most profitable crops in years[5]. 

   Drug policing uses specific terminology to quantify the extent of a drug’s criminalization. However, unclear definitions can sometimes cause confusion as to what exactly is meant, even between experts. In this article, “legalization” will refer to the complete deregulation of a drug. More commonly, “decriminalization” refers to the removal of criminal sanctions for the possession or use of small quantities of the drug. “Prohibition” expresses imposing criminal punishments for the possession or use of a specific drug. 

Drug decriminalization

   In 2001, Portugal decriminalized not just the possession and use but also the purchase of all illicit drugs—the first country in the world to do so. The production and distribution of illicit drugs remain criminal[6]. In the 1990s, Portugal was facing a drug addiction crisis: dangerous use of opiates, heroin, cocaine, and other drugs plagued about 1% of the population including the upper classes. João Goulão, a Portuguese physician, current Drugs and Alcohol National Coordinator, and leading figure in Portugal’s modern drug policy, explained that “it made much more sense for us to treat drug addicts as patients who needed help, not as criminals[6].” Consequently, Portugal focuses on providing support and safer conditions for drug addicts through outreach programs and supervised drug consumption facilities. Since decriminalization, studies show that the per capita cost of drug misuse has decreased by 18% and the percentage of people incarcerated for drug-related crime has decreased by 20% from 1999 to 2013[7][8]. 

   Drug decriminalization does not have the same positive effect everywhere in the world. In Canada and almost half of the states in the United States, cannabis decriminalization has had a statistically significant impact. According to the United Nations Office of Drugs and Crime’s (UNODC) 2022 World Drug Report, “cannabis legalization in North America appears to have increased daily cannabis use… Associated increases in people with psychiatric disorders, suicides and hospitalizations have also been reported.” However, they also report increased tax revenues and decreased incarcerations for cannabis possession. Drug decriminalization therefore cannot be seen as a one-size-fits-all model. Targeted investment in public health through education, outreach, support programs and more must accompany any decriminalization efforts, as recreational drugs continue to be dangerous regardless of their legal classification. 

Tough on drugs

   Contrary to Portugal’s liberal policies, many countries are notably strict on drugs: 35 countries retain capital punishment for drug-related crime, and at least 131 people were executed in 2021 for drug offenses[9]. One of the most notable regions for strict drug policies is Southeast Asia. 

   Under the Singapore Misuse of Drugs Act (MDA), drugs are classified in a three-tier system. Class A drugs notably include cannabis, methamphetamine, and cocaine. Class B and C drugs include but are not limited to codeine, several opioids, and alprazolam (Xanax). Drug possession and/or consumption can be punished with a fine of up to $20,000, a maximum sentence of 10 years, or both. Drug trafficking can be punished with imprisonment, cane strokes, or the death penalty, depending on the quantity and type of drug trafficked. The MDA also constitutes that the police have the authority to subject anyone to a hair and/or urine test if they have grounds to suspect drug use—failure to provide a sample can result in the same punishment as actual drug possession or consumption[10]. 

   Southeast Asia also is home to one of the world’s biggest synthetic drug production and distribution locations: “The Golden Triangle,” or the region where the Thailand, Myanmar, and Laos borders meet. Interestingly, Thailand was the first country in Asia to legalize cannabis in 2022, but simultaneously tightened methamphetamine laws in the same year. Thailand’s military has been rigorously patrolling their border of the Golden Triangle in recent years, conducting violent drug busts that killed more than 10 smugglers in the last 3 years[11]. By protecting its country from drug-related threats, the Thailand military has steered an inherently dangerous—and deadly—drug policy in step with neighboring countries in Southeast Asia. 

   Following the execution of Suppiah, Amnesty International Deputy Regional Director Ming Yu Hah noted that “punitive drug policies have failed not only to tackle the use and availability of drugs in the country, but also failed to offer effective protection from drug-related harm,” like drug overdoses and mortality, drug-related infectious diseases, addiction, and drug-related violence[12]. Research from pharmaceutical and public health experts emphasizes that the criminalization of drug use exacerbates drug-related harm to already vulnerable communities[13]. 

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   While drug decriminalization is no easy endeavor, it has proven to benefit many aspects of society when implemented correctly. Because research shows that there is no correlation between tough drug policies and less drug use, the modern global trend is shifting towards more lenient drug laws. That being said, the successful drug decriminalization in Portugal has not shown the same effects in North America. Asian countries consistently maintain some of the toughest drug policies, where individuals like Suppiah can suffer grave personal punishment for drug possession, use, or trafficking. The immediate goal of drug policing is to stop people from using or distributing dangerous illicit drugs—the overall goal, however, was and remains to protect the health and safety of a country’s citizens. 

[1] Harper’s Magazine

[2] Vox

[3] PLOS Medicine

[4] UNODC

[5] UN News

[6] The Times

[7] The International Journal of Drug Policy

[8] The Drug Policy Alliance 

[9] Correlation: European Harm Reduction Network 

[10] I.R.B. Law LLP 

[11] ABC News

[12] Amnesty International 

[13] Journal of the American Pharmacists Association